Thursday, 13 February 2025

Chuka

Fiction, THE NEW YORKER 
Arms hold up a large silver dumbbell against a blue backdrop.
Photograph by Nakeya Brown for The New Yorker

I have always longed to be known, truly known, by another human being. Sometimes we live for years with yearnings that we cannot name. Until a crack appears in the sky and widens and reveals us to ourselves, as the pandemic did, because it was during lockdown that I began to sift through my life and give names to things long unnamed. I vowed at first to make the most of this collective sequestering: if I had no choice but to stay indoors, then I would oil my thinning edges every day, drink eight tall glasses of water, jog on the treadmill, sleep long, luxurious hours, and pat rich serums on my skin. But, only days in, I was spiralling in a bottomless well. Words and warnings swirled and spun, and I felt as if all human progress was swiftly reversing to an ancient stage of confusion: don’t touch your face; wash your hands; don’t go outside; spray disinfectant; wash your hands; don’t go outside; don’t touch your face. Did washing my face count as touching? I always used a face towel, but one morning my palm grazed my cheek and I froze, the tap water still running. I was alone in my house in Maryland, in suburban silence, the eerie roads bordered by trees that themselves seemed stilled. No cars drove past. I looked out and saw a herd of deer striding across the clearing of my front yard. About ten deer, or maybe fifteen, nothing like the lone deer I would see from time to time chewing shyly in the grass. I felt frightened of them, their unusual boldness, as though my world was about to be overrun not just by deer but by other lurking creatures I could not imagine. My joints throbbed, and the muscles of my back, and the sides of my neck, as if my body knew too well that we are not made to live like this.

In this new suspended life, I one day found a gray hair on my head. It appeared overnight, near my temple, tightly coiled, and in the bathroom mirror I first thought it was a piece of lint. A single gray hair with a slight sheen to it. I unfurled it to its full length, let it go, and then unfurled it again. I didn’t pull it out. I thought: I’m growing old. I’m growing old and the world has changed and I have never been truly known. A rush of raw melancholy brought tears to my eyes. This is all there is, this fragile breathing in and out. Where have all the years gone, and have I made the most of life? But what is the final measure for making the most of life, and how would I know if I have?

To look back at the past was to be flooded by regret. I don’t know which came first—whether I began to nurse regrets and then Googled the men in my past, or whether Googling the men in my past left me swamped with regrets. I thought of all the beginnings, and the lightness of being that comes with beginnings. I grieved the time lost in hoping that whatever I had would turn to wonder. I grieved what I did not even know to be true, that there was someone out there who had passed me by, who might not just have loved me but truly known me.

In January, when the world knew of the virus brewing in China but lockdown was still unimaginable, Aunty Jane came to our house in the village and asked to see me. My mother’s sister and manic shadow, who made everybody’s business hers. I was packing for my return to America. I was bloated from too much Christmas chin-chin. I didn’t feel like seeing Aunty Jane; I already knew what she wanted to talk about, but I had never learned to disobey relatives older than me.

“Chia, you’re running out of time!” she said, as soon as I stepped into the living room. “Your only option now is I.V.F. I know somebody that just had twins at forty-five. But you have to hurry up if you want to use your own eggs. Stop travelling up and down, and find a man to do I.V.F. with. Or you can use donor sperm. All this travel—one day you will be tired and, without a child, your life will just feel empty and meaningless.”

It might sound cruel, but it wasn’t; she was only being benignly blunt, as Nigerians are wont. I was forty-four and I did not have a husband and I did not have a child, a calamity more confounding because it was not for lack of suitors.

“So a husband is no longer necessary, Aunty?” I said, laughing. “You should have told me this ten years ago.”

How slippery moralities are, how they circle and fade and change with circumstance. Imagine if I had decided to have a baby ten years ago, without a husband. Imagine my aunt’s horror.

“There was still hope ten years ago,” Aunty Jane said, unamused.

“Aunty, I am praying,” I said. I always said what women confronted with the crime of singleness said: I am praying, please pray for me, my own will come by God’s grace. It was easier to pretend that I was as broken by singleness as I was expected to be. People did not easily believe that you longed for the unusual.

“Chia, what really happened with Chuka?” Aunty Jane asked.

“We just didn’t make a good match.”

“But you were engaged.”

In response to my silent shrug, Aunty Jane prodded: “Did you discover something?”

“No. It just didn’t work out,” I said firmly, and hoped she would leave it alone. If I had said that he beat me, or he was not actually divorced, or he was seeing another woman, Aunty Jane would have understood. Real meaty reasons, with sympathy poured on me, and opprobrium on him. But she would never have understood the truth, that I broke up with Chuka because I could no longer ignore that exquisite ache of wanting to love a lovely person that you do not love.

We met at a Nigerian wedding in Indiana. I hadn’t wanted to go, but my mother said she and my father couldn’t come and I would have to represent them. Febechi told me, “There’s somebody here that is perfect for you. You people fit each other, children of Big Men.”

I didn’t know Febechi well; we had been classmates in secondary school, and even then she had always joked about my father with a slyness that felt too close to spite.

“Febechi, please let me eat my rice in peace, biko.”

Nigerian wedding introductions were so lacking in wonder, so predictable, so planned that they could not end with marriage as I believed marriage should be, a merging of two souls. And what slim sad pickings: weary men in search of a Nigerian wife, any Nigerian wife, but preferably a nurse, because somebody somewhere had convinced Nigerians in America that nurses made good money and that men could not be nurses. Once, at a wedding in Houston, I overheard a man ask, “Are you willing to train as a nurse if we go ahead?”

Febechi ignored my groaning and brought Chuka to our table. He was umber-skinned, built as if he played rugby, his mustache linked to his short beard by a thin groomed line, his bald head shining in the ballroom’s chandelier light. There was a leonine quality to him. You noticed him; he subdued space. It surprised me that he needed to be introduced to anybody at all. He had an unusual self-possession, as though he would face emergencies with genuine calm. He was nine years older than me but seemed even older; not aged but vividly grown up, like an adult archetype, so courteous and proper, so sensible. He must have been a prefect in secondary school, the kind who was liked by both students and teachers, who could quiet a rowdy classroom but would also sneak out with friends for beer and cigarettes.

“It’s nice we both live in the D.M.V. area,” he said that first day, with quiet anticipation, and I smiled and said, “Yes.”

The living room of his house, outside Washington, D.C., reminded me of our house in Enugu: tan leather sofas, a tan coffee table, and heavy tasselled tan curtains. I felt, for a moment, the strange sensation of being pursued by the past.

“Everything matches,” I said in dismay, without meaning to sound dismayed.

“Is that bad?” he asked.

“No, no, of course not.”

“You can change whatever you want to change.”

He signalled permanence almost right away. “Chia, I’m too old to play games. I saw your picture on Febechi’s Facebook page and told her I wanted to meet you. My intention is marriage,” he said, and I said nothing, knowing he would hear acquiescence in my silence. I had always imagined my choice of husband would be like my choice of profession: unusual, but not so unusual as to alienate my parents. Somebody foreign, but not too foreign, with poetry in his soul. Not a successful Igbo engineer who still shined his shoes with the Kiwi polish that everybody’s father in Nigeria had used. Where did he even buy the tin?

Each day with Chuka I encountered his otherness. He made his bed as soon as he got up, sheets pulled taut and straight, and wore his shirts neatly tucked in, even on weekends. In his closet, his socks were curled in neat rows. He read books I did not think of as real books, about leadership and project management. He wrote his name, Chuka Aniegboka, on the title pages, at the top right corner, in a geometric hand, which gave me an odd rush of nostalgia, because I had last done that in primary school. He listened to the BBC World News every morning. He liked films that bored me, formulaic thrillers, and he watched them with intense focus. If I spoke, he would pause the film and say, “I don’t want to miss anything.”

“But we already know what will happen!” I would tease.

He lifted weights in the basement, his toolboxes were tidily arranged in the garage, and he closed the jam jar so tight that I could not unscrew the lid myself. One day, watching him replace a door handle on his deck, I thought guiltily that he was like that door: sturdy, reassuring, uncreative. He always ordered a well-done steak at restaurants, never anything else, and back home he would promptly microwave a portion of jollof rice, which came in flimsy plastic containers from a Nigerian caterer in Baltimore, saying that restaurant food never left him full. He crossed himself before he ate, and I thought about how I had stopped crossing myself years ago, because it felt unnecessary and showy. I planned a trip to a Broadway play, and he fell asleep in the middle of it. I nudged him awake, and he said, “Sorry, I should have had coffee at the hotel,” as if it was caffeine rather than interest that should keep him awake. He suggested brunch at the Four Seasons and I suggested something less stuffy.

“It’s made from one hundred per cent wool that the lamb has no use for.”
Cartoon by P. C. Vey

“O.K.,” he said, doubtful but willing. “It’s just that the Four Seasons is a trusted brand.” His was a life of faith in trusted brands. He flew only airlines that were “mainstream,” even if it meant multiple connections, and he was astounded that I never flew British Airways. He agreed that the airline was pompous and, yes, a kind of petty pleasure always lit up the flight attendants’ faces as they demeaned Nigerian passengers, but was that reason enough to make him fly airlines that nobody really knew? Whenever I travelled, he dropped me off and picked me up at the airport, asking only if my trip had gone well, seeking no details of my adventures. He did not understand, he could not possibly understand. I imagined him saying, “You have a degree from a good school—why not get a proper job? You can still do your writing on weekends.” He didn’t say this, he never did, but I imagined the words itching to roll off his tongue. He read my articles and always said, “Nice,” as if tasting a tolerable food that still does not appeal.

He read my article about Greece, which began, “How do other tourists tolerate the smell of donkey shit in Santorini?” Afterward he said, vaguely, “Very nice.” Not just his usual “Nice” but “Very nice,” which must mean the donkey shit offended the properness at his core.

“I liked the other islands,” I said, in penance. “We should go together when you’re on vacation.”

“We should go to Dubai,” he said. “It’s a miracle of engineering and political will. Really what Nigeria should be.”

I thought Dubai all sterile kitsch, but it did not surprise me that Chuka liked it, because Nigerians liked Dubai. He was a harking back to my Nigerian life, familiar but now made exotic by the wide gorge that separated me from it. He told me, “I don’t want to rush you,” as boys said to girls they were serious about; it made you special, exempt from the sex-haste reserved for less deserving girls. I wasn’t even sure I wanted to sleep with him at all. It took months before I let him undress me in his bedroom. I didn’t really want to, but I felt I should, because I did like him and I was by most measures his girlfriend now and he somehow deserved it, being so proper and attentive. It would be predictable, I was sure, even perfunctory, but at least not unpleasant. How unutterably wrong I turned out to be. Chuka startled me with new and unexpected pleasures; doors never opened were suddenly flung apart, our bodies in riot and all the old laws undone. “You’re so sweet, you’re so sweet,” he said, forceful and urgent, until I was heady with earthly power. I felt for the first time in my life an intensity of forgetting, those brief raw moments of bodily transport, of physical oblivion. Afterward I lay dazed. “I love you,” he said, and I said, “What did you just do to me?” Already I wanted a repeat. Already I wanted and wanted.

Iwas telling Chuka a story about primary school, how the other children called me Milk Butter, because my hands were soft:

“I was maybe nine, and another school had come to ours for a debate competition. We were asked to shake hands and one of the boys let go of my hand very quickly, as if my palm was hot, and he said, ‘Your hand is too soft!’ I remember the debate topic: ‘Doctors are more important than lawyers.’ Our school won. I think that boy was just angry about losing, and so he started taunting me—‘Softy-softy hands, you don’t do any work at home, you’re not strong, you just eat milk and butter’—and soon the other children were calling me Milk and Butter, which then morphed to Milk Butter.”

“Milk Butter,” Chuka repeated, and reached for my hand. “So soft. That boy wasn’t wrong.” He was running his thumb over my palm and I was thinking of his tongue. My life had become a scattering of unexpected eroticism.

You have the hands of a laborer,” I teased. “So rough.”

“Oh, my father did not play—I could change a car tire by the age of eight. When I moved to Lagos for university, I was so shocked to see men getting manicures in salons.”

“You should come with me to get a manicure.”

“I’ll do anything for you, but manicure in a salon? Mba.”

I loved his saying no to a manicure, and I loved it only from him. From other men it would have been laughably backward. But Chuka was my old-fashioned fantasy, a manly man, he could sweep me into his arms, pick me up as if I weighed nothing, carry me, protect me. Refusing a manicure fit just right.

I would watch him immersed in the mundane and see only sensuality: Chuka cleaning his kitchen counter, thorough and broad-shouldered; Chuka paying for groceries at Whole Foods; Chuka driving, eyes trained on the road. Even his reticence with his friends felt sensual.

I watched him at cookouts in his friends’ yards during that summer’s lovely languid days. I liked to sit and listen to the loud Nigerian voices, sheltering in their presence, enjoying the newness of it, because I did not often go to Nigerian gatherings.

“Take her out of that public school now, before she comes home and starts twerking,” somebody said.

“Imagine, one white patient came into my consulting room and asked me where the doctor is, in this state of Maryland!” another said.

“There is somebody in Bowie who can organize a real goat for you,” somebody else said.

Chuka’s closest friends in America, Enyinnaya and Ifeyinwa, hosted Saturday gatherings at their house in Bethesda. Ifeyinwa was the kind of Igbo woman who intimidated me: sure-footed, bristling with capability, always able to handle things, contemptuous of any foolishness. She had a big job with the county, and I imagined her dogged climb up the ranks while raising children and getting a master’s degree or two. She was tall and wore a short side-part wig that was uninterested in looking realistic. I desperately wanted her to like me. I brought bottles of wine when we visited. I sprang up to help her serve puff-puff and meat pies.

“Thank you, my dear, but please just sit down and relax,” she said.

She wasn’t unfriendly, but her coolness created distance. One Saturday, Chuka said that Ifeyinwa’s sister was visiting from Nigeria, but I didn’t see her until late in the day, when the other guests had gone. She walked into the kitchen, in a cloud of heavy perfume. Upon seeing a beautiful woman, animosity erupts unprompted in some women. I knew from experience how to diagnose it. At first, I thought Ifeyinwa’s sister was afflicted with it, how she radiated hostility, not acknowledging me in a way that made clear she was not acknowledging me. She filled a glass with water, and then I realized that it wasn’t me. It was Chuka. The flounce in her manner. She was ignoring Chuka. That stir of defiance, even vengefulness, was for Chuka. They had a history. Or more than a history. What was their story? I felt a breathless stab of jealousy. Her long lustrous weave fell in waves to her shoulders. Her designer jeans were slightly pinched at the crotch. To douse the sudden charged air after her sister left with the glass of water, Ifeyinwa said, “Chuka, biko come and help me open this thing.”

Witnessing Chuka’s effect on Ifeyinwa’s sister left me shaken. I saw him anew and admired him anew, his vitality, the controlled, sustained energy of him. When he went to the living room, I followed. I sat by his side. Until we left, I kept him always in my sight, my jealousy mounting, climbing, enveloping me.

“Ifeyinwa’s sister was not very sociable,” I said in the car, and then wished I had simply asked what their story was.

Chuka sighed and said that Ifeyinwa had introduced her sister to him just after his divorce; they met once and he wasn’t interested. He had never given her any hope, never played games. He didn’t understand why she was so angry.

“Because she wants you,” I said, suddenly light from relief. “Who wouldn’t want you?”

His smile was barely there, as if he didn’t quite know what to do with compliments.

One day, I overheard Ifeyinwa say to a friend, laughing, “Any Igbo man from Anambra State will cheat with a woman if she cooks ukwa for him. That’s why I married from Imo State. I didn’t want to lose my husband to ukwa.”

Chuka and I were always the last to leave, and so, in the waning evening, I went to the sink and began to rinse glasses and load the dishwasher.

“Oh, no . . . ,” Ifeyinwa started to protest.

“Sister Ify, I’ve been looking for ukwa to cook for Chuka,” I said, a lie I had not planned on until it came floating out of my mouth. I hated the mealy oiliness of ukwa, and I had no idea how it was cooked.

Ifeyinwa squinted slightly at me, surprised, no doubt thinking that this Big Man’s daughter, with her “travel writing” frippery of a job, was still solid enough to want to make ukwa for her man. It made me redeemable. She told me to try the African market in Catonsville. Days later, from the back of the store, with its musty smell of stockfish, I sent her a text saying, “Just bought ukwa, thank you!”

As the cashier rang me up, an African American woman in line behind me peered at the register and said, “Whatever that is better be worth it!”

I smiled at her. “It is,” I said. “It’s a delicacy from the southeastern part of Nigeria. Breadfruit. I’m making it for my fiancé.”

More words sailing unplanned out of my mouth. How was I slipping on this new persona like a T-shirt? I cooked from a YouTube video and laid out a surprise dinner for Chuka on my dining table.

“Chia!” he said, lifting the lid of the Dutch oven. “Ahn-ahn! Where is this from? You can make ukwa? Baby, thank you, thank you so much.” Something about his expression made me teary. How easily he was made happy, how uncomplicated his conditions for fulfillment.

Soon afterward, Ifeyinwa began teasing Chuka about our getting married. Her approval felt like an accomplishment and warmed me like a compliment.

“Why are you wasting time, Chuka? See Chia’s pointed nose? Your children will win beauty contests.”

“Chia is the cause of the delay,” Chuka said.

“Don’t mind him!” I said, to appear eager for marriage, as she would expect.

Enyinnaya looked up from his phone screen.

“Look at this young Nigerian writer,” he said. “She’s doing very well, we’re proud of her, but I heard she is married and decided to keep her maiden name. Why is she confusing young girls? If something is not broken, don’t fix it.” He looked at me slyly, as though I, too, might commit this crime.

He was a small soft-bellied man, a neurosurgeon. On our first visit, he had thrust into my hand a hospital journal with his photo on the cover, and then hovered, waiting, until I opened to the page filled with his face. “Congratulations,” I said, unsure of what else to say, and he nodded, a monarch accepting his due adulation. How could this be Chuka’s closest friend? Their television was always tuned to Fox News.

“The truth of the matter is that illegal immigration is killing this country!” Enyinnaya said. “Democrats don’t want to admit it.”

“Your brother is an illegal immigrant in Texas looking for somebody to marry for papers,” Ifeyinwa said briskly, and I wondered what they talked about when they were alone, if they talked at all.

Chuka laughed and told Enyinnaya, “Keep supporting people that don’t even want you.”

He was at the counter, fluidly removing the cork from a bottle of wine. Just hours before, he had been lying in bed in his boxer shorts, wide-chested, saying, “Chia, I’m waiting for you.” He didn’t strain to sound suggestive, it wasn’t his style; he simply said, “Chia, I’m waiting for you,” and the evenness of his tone lit up my longing.

Ifeyinwa was saying something to him and he said, sensible as always, “They should send you the invoice first.”

She could not possibly guess how, with passion, his nature changed so wildly as to become someone else’s. A person’s surface was never the full story, or even the story. That I had this knowledge of Chuka, this shared secret, brought its own frisson. Suddenly I could not wait to go back to his house. I got up and whispered in his ear, “I want you.” He smiled and briefly squeezed my hand, another tame gesture that said nothing about the latent fires. Later, we burned, and after we burned we lay in sweaty silence, and I thought about how desire can live beside love without becoming love.

“Do you sometimes want to escape and find another life?” I asked him.

“Find another life?” He propped himself up to look at me, waiting for more details, but some things resist explanation; it takes instinct, intuition, a knowing at your center that is either there or isn’t. From the moment I saw his dutiful living room, its matching furniture, I knew that there were large swaths of me that he would never understand.

Then came a moment of splendor. A Friday evening, and Chuka and I had planned to go into D.C. later for some live music. An editor named Katie e-mailed me to ask if she could call—a proper publisher in New York finally interested in my book proposal. Finally. Before I took the call, I washed my face and put my braids in a bun, to look presentable, as if Katie could see me. On the phone, Katie was talking about my title for the book, actually talking about my title, with serious interest; no hazy words and no “We’ll see.” Her voice was soothing, all creamy educated tones. She punctuated her sentences with the word “right?” She said “The Non-Adventurous Adventures of One African Woman” was wonderful, but perhaps “Black Woman in Transit” was stronger, because “African” was limiting and “Black” opened it up more. I thought “Black” too wide-ranging; “Black” didn’t explain the humiliations of my Nigerian passport, the rejected visas, the embassies leery of a Nigerian travelling just to explore. But I said yes, it was a wonderful idea. I said, Thank you, thank you, too many times. I said I was excited and wanted to make the book playful and personal. Yes, of course, she said, and then more gently added that she was wondering if maybe I should write a different book first, with more relevance, to create real début buzz, right? I said maybe my piece “Dining in the Three Guineas” should open the book, because Conakry, Malabo, and Bissau were not well known at all and visiting restaurants there made for interesting reading. She was still talking about a book with relevance, and I realized with a curdling anxiety that we were not talking about the same thing.

“Do you mind my asking what you mean by relevance?” I asked, and she said, “I saw a news story about Congo, what women there are going through, right? The horrific rapes. It’s been going on for years. I’m not saying you have to travel there, we would need to be clear about where is safe to go, but a book on Congo and the struggles of the people there would really resonate right now.”

As soon as she said “struggles,” the word lengthened piously, enunciated earnestly, I knew she saw me as an interpreter of struggles. She was saying, “Somalia or Sudan could work, too. A more general introduction to what’s going on there. People will buy it even if they don’t actually read it. They’ll buy it to show they care, right?”

A soft underbelly of cynicism ran through her words. She was asking if I would think about it and let her know, and I said yes, of course, and I hung up quickly before my tears betrayed me. In the shortest moment, self-doubt can swoop down and swallow you whole, leaving nothing behind. It was pointless, all of this. It suddenly felt stupid to think that anybody would publish a light and quirky travel book by a Black Nigerian woman; don’t forget the wealthy family, no struggle story, and her love of the nice parts of cities. Maybe I needed to go back and work for the family, as my parents wanted. If nothing else, I could write reports, as spreadsheets would always be incomprehensible puzzles to me. My confidence squeezed itself dry, ounce by ounce. I cried and stopped and started again.

I sent Chuka a text to say I didn’t feel up to our evening and he called right away. I said I felt a bit unwell and he said my voice sounded off. “I’m fine,” I said, no point in telling him, because he wouldn’t understand. He didn’t tell me he was already getting in his car as we spoke, but, when my doorbell rang, I knew it was him. I opened the door. Tears hijacked me. I hadn’t expected to cry, but at the first glance of Chuka at the door, in jeans and a button-down shirt, tucked in as ever, stable and steadfast, I burst into tears. He held me, enveloped me in his musk, silent for long moments, as if to say whatever it was could be solved.

“What’s wrong?”

I told him. At least he would listen and maybe I needed that. “How can she want me to write about war in Sudan?”

Chuka said nothing.

“I mean, don’t you see?” I asked, desperate to make him understand. “I want to write light, funny takes on travel, and to her I’m just an African who should write about struggles.”

“The problem is that many of these people don’t think we also dream,” he said.

I stared at him, astonished. “Yes,” I said. “Yes, exactly.”

“Chia, you’ll find the right editor. There is definitely somebody in publishing who will understand. Just keep trying.”

My tears changed in tenor. I sobbed and sobbed, hugging him with a long exhalation of my body’s breath. He did understand me. He saw all the places where I shone and all the places where I could shine.

“You get it,” I said, almost in wonder.

“Of course I do.”

“You never said anything.”

“You know I’m not a talker.”

Cartoon by Michael Maslin

Bolstered by the moment, the rapture of being known, our future together took shape for the first time. I told my mother about him, that he was divorced, no children, an engineer, Catholic, and not just Igbo but from Anambra State, too. For a moment my mother was silent, stunned, because what were the odds—her free-range daughter untethered from the life expected of her, now ending up with just the right man next door. A daughter almost forty years old, too. In what world did a successful childless Igbo man marry a woman who was thirty-nine years old? My mother broke into song—“Abu m onye n’uwa, Chineke na-echelu m echiche oma”—which made me misty, because in my childhood it was the church song she always sang in the face of joy. Chuka said his father was already making plans for the iku-aka ceremony, and I thought about how beautiful it sounded, the first stage of an Igbo marriage: iku aka, to knock on the door, to seek permission, to hope.

To our passion, hope was now added. Our relationship was a soft riverbed, my feet easily sinking and rising. We spoke Igbo in public, and made fun of Americans in restaurants, and it was like crawling together into a delightful secret tent. Chuka read about the publishing industry and said it made no sense how they kept publishing writers who were only recently teen-agers. What could they know, when they hadn’t lived?

I enthusiastically agreed. I was always seeking out stories of writers who published their first books later in life. A new editor in New York, a woman named Molly, who grew up in London, said, “I understand what you want to do, but what you have here won’t hold up for a book. You need more heft.”

“Then you’ll get more heft,” Chuka said when I told him. “Chia, this is progress. You’re committed to this thing. You’ll get there.”

“Yes,” I said. There is no elixir more potent than the genuine encouragement of a lovely person.

He called me Baby, in a tone that reminded me of an older person from an older time. At the high-school-graduation party of Enyinnaya’s son, he called out “Baby!” and at least five women looked up. They, too, were Baby. I had joined a cadre of women called Baby. I got up and went to him, smiling, thinking that the picture I had carried in my mind of the life I wanted was not one in which I was called Baby. Babe or Babes, maybe, but not Baby.

We had arrived early for the party. My halter top began unravelling as I climbed out of the car. Chuka, amused, asked if we needed to go home so I could change, and hadn’t he said those ropes looked impractical? He took my handbag while I retied the top more tightly behind my neck.

I didn’t know Enyinnaya had walked up behind us until he said, “Ahn-ahn, Chuka, why are you holding her handbag like her houseboy?” His first words. No greeting. It was an odd, tense moment, Enyinnaya stern and unsmiling, looking truly appalled. As if Chuka holding my bag was an existential failure. A sudden outsized tension hung between us in the driveway, the hum of arriving guests drowned by our silence. And this because of a handbag? All I wanted was to go to a graduation party on a carefree summer day. I reached for the bag, but Chuka brushed me away.

“I am holding her handbag because I want to hold her handbag,” Chuka said steadily. Enyinnaya shrugged and walked ahead. Chuka looked softly at me and said, “Sorry, sometimes Enyinnaya acts as if a nut in his head is loose, but he doesn’t mean harm.” We walked into the house, Chuka still firmly holding my bag, and in my eyes he became a hulking glorious god. Later, I told him I didn’t understand how Enyinnaya could be his closest friend; there was nothing wrong with Enyinnaya, of course, I added hastily, but they were so dissimilar.

“He stood by me when I was at my lowest,” Chuka said.

I looked at him and thought, He’s mine. This solid-gold hunk of a man is mine. This man who chooses his side and stays steadfast. This breathing paean to loyalty. I was content, sated. I was where I was supposed to be.

Yet in quiet moments, alone, I feared that my contentment was a kind of resignation.

Chuka said that his family would go and see mine at the end of the month.

“I think we should compress as much as we can—do all the traditional ceremonies in one day and then focus on the wedding, to save time,” he said. By saving time I knew he meant my age. At thirty-nine, there was a shrinking stretch for the two children he so wanted to have.

“A smaller ceremony here is fine with me, but you know they’ll want the wedding to be back home,” he said.

I stared at him. The wedding. I had never visualized a wedding. It existed only as a vague awareness somewhere in the back of my mind.

I thought of my mother saying, “Why did she use local printers?,” about Mrs. Okoye’s daughter’s wedding invitation, while gleefully examining the deficient card. She and Mrs. Okoye detested each other and called each other friends. I imagined the wedding invitations my mother would print in London, two “C”s tastefully intertwined on champagne-pale paper. Soft tissue inside the envelope. Chiamaka & Chukwuka in a sophisticated font. At the wedding, she would wear a blouse with dramatic puffed sleeves, the glittery stones on her George wrapper flashing as she walked. She would make sure Mrs. Okoye got two or three of the lavish gift bags. Our parents would give us generous presents: maybe a flat in London from Chuka’s parents, maybe a bigger house in Maryland from mine. I would fold into a life no longer lived alone, have a baby, find a Jamaican nanny, and try for a second baby. Febechi, I knew, had had her second at forty-three. I saw the attentive, patient father Chuka would be, bent over our toddler on a tricycle, or on the floor with her, building a Lego house. So attractive, this vision. But I felt only a gathering dread, a turmoil in my stomach, to face a truth I wished were not true: I did not want what I wanted to want.

“No,” I said quietly.

“What?”

“I’m not sure I’m ready,” I said.

He looked confused. I said “ready” because “ready” was softer, and I knew it was cowardly of me, because “ready” could be taken to mean a delay rather than a conclusion.

“What?” he asked.

“I don’t want your people to go and see my people,” I said.

There was a quickening in him, a flare of his nostrils.

“What do you mean, Chia? I told you my intention from day one.”

Later I thought of that word “intention.” Women all over Nigeria haunted by that word, “intention,” fathers smoldering silently, mothers and aunties asking, “What is his intention?” By asking and asking, they meant you had failed to make an intention happen, as intentions had often to be prodded and simpered and manipulated into being.

“I’m sorry, Chuka,” I said. “I’m sorry.”

“Sorry about what?” He looked incredulous. “Is there someone else?”

“No,” I said.

“Chiamaka, what are you talking about? What nonsense is this?”

His anger surprised me. He was so angry, angry that I had rejected him, or maybe his hurt had, as hurt often does, folded itself into the shape of anger. His face was transformed, each plane hardened by rage, and he looked like a different person. A flash of fear shot through me that he might slap me. But he didn’t. He wouldn’t. It was not in his nature. “I don’t understand. Tell me why. What do you mean?” he kept asking. But I did not know what to tell him, or even what to tell myself, and for a brief moment I thought of Aunty Jane once saying that someone in her church was possessed. It was a kind of possession, the incomplete knowledge of oneself.

“Chia, I was clear from the beginning that I’m not playing games,” he said. “I want to honor you.”

“I know. I’m sorry. I’m so sorry.” Honor you. I wished I could think of marriage as an honor, a badge bestowed on me. But I couldn’t. The thought of marriage to Chuka felt like the truncating of my life to fit a new mold, and I could think only of what would change that I did not want changed.

Later, I sent him text messages saying I was sorry, and he never replied. Even the messages were spineless. What was I sorry for? How do you break a heart and then say you’re sorry? Sorry would be acceptable to him, I knew, if I asked for another chance, to please come back. But I didn’t. The root of his loving was duty; he loved as an act of duty, and wasn’t it childish of me to think this dull, to want an incandescent love, consuming, free of all onus? I stumbled through the following weeks, my mind furred in gloom. I was perplexed by the size of my own uncertainty. I woke with lucid visions of our passion, his urgency, my clothing drawn and pulled aside. What had I done, I asked myself, this wanton waste, this loss I had created for myself? But something was missing; it was there in the echo after sex, the silence we slipped into, which was not uncomfortable but empty. Did dreams serve a purpose, and was it real to imagine what I wanted, and did it even exist? Febechi called me a few times, leaving curt “please call me” messages; the peevish matchmaker whose project had failed. When I finally returned her calls, she said, “Chia, this man is a catch. There isn’t anything better out there. Honestly, you were never grateful that he loved you.” For a long time afterward, I thought about her accusation, because it was an accusation, that I was not grateful to have been loved. What is this gratitude to look like? Is it to be a state of being, to live adrift in gratitude because a man loves you? ♦

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has published fiction and nonfiction in The New Yorker since 2006. Her novels include “Dream Count” and “Americanah.”

Tuesday, 4 February 2025

What is a tariff and how does it work?

By Elisabeth Buchwald, CNN 3 minute read Published 5:49 AM EST, Tue February 4, 2025
Shipping containers at the Bayport Container Terminal at the port of Houston in Seabrook, Texas on Friday, October 4, 2024. Shipping containers at the Bayport Container Terminal at the port of Houston in Seabrook, Texas on Friday, October 4, 2024. Mark Felix/Bloomberg/Getty Images

 New York CNN — Tariffs have dominated headlines since President Donald Trump took office just over two weeks ago, as he threatened steep, sweeping tariffs on goods the United States imports from its three largest trading partners — Mexico, China and Canada — on Tuesday. These tariffs risk making a wide range of goods Americans buy much more expensive — and could also hurt domestic businesses if the three countries respond with retaliatory tariffs on American goods. But for all this talk about tariffs, you may be wondering: What exactly is a tariff and how does it work? Delays on some tariffs Hours before 25% tariffs were set to go into effect on all Mexican and most Canadian goods, Trump said he reached agreements with leaders of both nations to delay enacting new tariffs for at least another month. However, a 10% tariff on all goods coming to the US from China took effect at 12:01 a.m. ET on Tuesday. China immediately retaliated with tariffs on some energy and metals imports. 

Simply put, what’s a tariff? The definition of a tariff is fairly straightforward — it’s a tax on goods coming from another country. They are typically structured as a percentage of the value of the import and can vary based on where the goods are coming from and what the products are.

 Who pays the tariff? Domestic businesses that import products into the country pay the tariffs up front, contrary to Trump’s claims that exporting nations foot the bill. The actual transaction occurs at the 328 points of entry into the US designated by Customs and Border Protection to take in imports, including airports, railways, roads and ports. At those ports of entry, CBP agents collect tariff revenue from the domestic businesses importing the products, which is calculated based on how the merchandise is classified and where it came from, said Ted Murphy, a lawyer at Sidley Austin who specializes in advising businesses on customs compliance issues. Many importers use the government’s electronic payment system, which automatically deducts tariff from a designated bank account. It’s also possible to pay it all at once on a monthly basis rather than having it automatically deducted each time. 

 A cargo ship full of shipping containers is seen at the port of Oakland as trade tensions escalate over US tariffs, in Oakland, California on February 3, 2025. Carlos Barria/Reuters 

 But Trump isn’t entirely wrong in saying that other nations pay for tariffs levied on them, Murphy said. That’s because when businesses know they’ll have to spend more to import goods from one country versus another, they may decide it makes more financial sense to find a new supplier elsewhere or, in Trump’s ideal world, shift their production to the US. In either case, the economy of the country whose goods are tariffed can suffer from the loss of revenue, potentially resulting in job losses. However, exporting nations often don’t just accept tariffs without fighting back. Sometimes those countries respond with retaliatory tariffs, launching what often turns into a full-fledged tade war of tit-for-tat tariffs.

Thursday, 23 January 2025

Insulin100: The Discovery and Development


By Defining Moments Canada 

The discovery and the development of insulin in the early 1920s by a team of scientists in Canada saved the lives of people suffering from diabetes all over the world and continues to have impact on the lives of diabetics today. It is a UNESCO recognized historic milestone and remembered every year on 14 November, World Diabetes Day (also Frederick Banting’s birthday!). This timeline will tell the story of the discovery, the people involved, and insulin’s impact in Canada and globally.

To read more in-depth historical articles about the events during the early history of insulin, follow the links throughout the timeline or start here.

In 1920, on the eve of the discovery of insulin, Canada was hesitantly emerging from four tumultuous years of war. The final months of World War I, which ended on November 11, 1918, coincided at home with the enormous suffering caused by the global influenza pandemic of 1918-19. Emerging from the pandemic, the federal government set up a national department of health in 1919. At the same time, significant labour unrest erupted, most dramatically in the Winnipeg General Strike.

At this time, a diagnosis of diabetes was essentially a death sentence, especially for a child with rapid onset of what later was defined as Type 1. Life expectancy was generally less than a year from diagnosis. Slower onset diabetes, mostly among adults and later defined as Type 2, was more manageable, yet still deadly in many cases. At the time there was no exact definition of diabetes as diagnostic methods were uncertain and changing, as were statistical methods. Thus, it was impossible to know just how many diabetics there were in Canada, or anywhere else. The best estimate was that between 0.5 and 2.0% of the residents of industrialized countries had diabetes in 1920. In more prosperous and well-nourished societies, the disease seemed more prevalent. In fact, by 1920, diabetes was most visible in the richest countries, notably the United States and Germany, as well as Canada. Learn more about diabetes before the discovery of insulin.

October 25, 1917 – The new Connaught Laboratories farm site and buildings is officially opened. The Connaught Antitoxin Laboratories and University Farm was established in collaboration with the University of Toronto after Dr. John G. FitzGerald had hoped U of T would establish a Pasteur Institute. In early 1914, FitzGerald made a presentation to the university’s Board of Governors who were impressed by his efforts and joined his project on May 1, 1914. To learn more about Dr. FitzGerald and the history of Connaught, click here.

31 October 1920 – Banting’s original idea

In the early hours of October 31, 1920, in London, Ontario, 28-year-old Dr. Frederick G. Banting woke up suddenly. He had had a flash of insight for a novel experiment to isolate the elusive internal secretion of the pancreas as a means of treating diabetes.

Banting, had been reading about carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes. After a few hours of disturbed sleep, he awoke with a compelling idea that he quickly jotted down in a notebook. 

Banting's original handwritten note about his idea, which reads: "Diabetus - Ligate pancreatic ducts of dog - Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving Islets - Try to insolate the internal secretion of these to relieve glycosuria"
The note made by Banting in the middle of the night. It reads: “Diabetus – Ligate pancreatic ducts of dog – Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving Islets – Try to insolate the internal secretion of these to relieve glycosuria” [University of Toronto; The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

How did Banting get here? Explore his life story.

7 November 1920 – Banting meets Macleod

While in Toronto for a friend’s wedding, Banting is able to secure a meeting with the head of physiology at the University of Toronto, Dr. John J. R. Macleod, to speak about his pancreatic extract idea.

Banting

Dr. Frederick Banting, circa 1922 [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

Macleod

Dr. John J.R. Macleod, circa 1923 [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

Banting and Macleod never provided full details of this initial discussion, though Banting did note that Macleod sat back in his chair and closed his eyes while he thought for a few minutes. He then said, “This might be the means of getting rid of external secretion.” As far as he knew, Macleod continued, this method had not been tried before. “It was worth trying…[N]egative results would be of great physiological value.”

It was agreed that Banting would come to U of T in Spring 1921 to begin the research, with Macleod’s support.

Read more about this initial meeting and Dr. Macleod.

There are many different interpretations of the initial meeting between Dr. Banting and Dr. Macleod. You can compare some of them in these video clips.

“The Quest” – a National Film Board of Canada short film produced in 1958. [Meeting at the 2:33 mark]

“Comet Among the Stars” – a 1973 BBC TV-movie about Dr. Macleod. This clip from the movie focuses on the meeting.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBZbGpr5yW4

Michael Bliss’ The Discovery of Insulin and his Banting: A Biography were the basis of the 1988 CBC min-series, “Glory Enough For All.” A digitized home recording of the full min-series is available on YouTube (except for the last few minutes). The 7 November 1920 Banting-Macleod meeting scene begins at the 33:28 mark of the video.

11 March 1921 – “…the problem of Pancreatic Diabetes…”
May 1921 – Banting meets Best

Banting is finally able to leave London for Toronto in order to begin his research. Macleod assigns him a 4th-year student from his Honours Physiology and Biochemistry course, Charles Best. Best would assist Banting with the testing of blood sugar levels, as well as nitrogen and sugar levels in urine.

Charles Best circa 1918 [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

The first task that Banting and Best undertook when they arrived at the University of Toronto’s Medical Building was cleaning the physiology department’s animal operating room.

The Medical Building at the University of Toronto [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

17 May 1921 – The first pancreatectomy took about 80 minutes and the dog recovered. Banting and Best operated on two more dogs the next day, but both died. By 21 May 1921, the original dog and one more had also died after initially recovering from surgery.

28 May 1921 – An operation on Dog #387 proves successful and Best removes the remaining segment of the dog’s pancreas. The dog develops diabetic symptoms, and although it dies on 1 June 1921, Banting and Best felt that their first completed experimental work went more or less according to plan.

By mid-June, after four weeks of work, things seem to be going well. Two of the dogs that had their pancreases removed were healing, and seven of the dogs that had had the duct ligation procedures were doing well. Now Banting and Best had to wait a few weeks before they would be ready to proceed with the third and most critical part of their experimental work, preparing their first pancreatic extract to test of the diabetic dogs.

July 1921 – Early in the month, Banting and Best discovered that many of the duct ligations had not worked, and only two of seven dogs had degenerated pancreases. They re-ligated the other five dogs, but unfortunately four of the dogs died within a few days. Both men felt the week was a disaster, and took the long weekend off to rest and re-group.

30 July 1921 – Banting removed the clearly degenerated pancreases from Dog #391; he and Best proceeded to prepare their first pancreatic extract, using detailed instructions left by Macleod.

On the same day, Dog #410 was the first to receive an injection of the pancreatic extract. Despite mixed results, it was clear the extract had a marked effect. Dog #410 died after falling into a diabetic coma the next day.

1 August 1921 – Dog #406 was in a coma and on the brink of death when Banting administered some of the extract. Its blood sugar fell, and it was soon up and walking around. This was impressive, but unfortunately the dog did fall back into a coma and died.

Banting and Best on the roof of the Medical Building with Dog #408.
Banting and Best on the roof of the Medical Building with Dog #408. [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

4 August 1921 – Dog #408 receives an injection of the extract, successfully dropping its blood sugar. The dog remained in good condition. Banting and Best referred to their pancreatic extract as “Isletin” for the first time. Dog #408 would eventually die of an infection, after successfully receiving injections for a number of hours. Banting and Best had learned much about “Isletin” and its anti-diabetic properties and were eager to send a report to Macleod.

9 August 1921 – Writing to Macleod, Banting was very excited to report that the extract “invariably” caused a reduction in blood sugar. But he also had plenty of questions and was very anxious to continue the work in a better equipped lab. In particular, he and Best needed more help looking after the animals, and they needed better operating facilities.

Draft of Banting’s 9 August 1921 letter to Prof. Macleod. [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

11 August 1921 – While waiting for a reply from Macleod, Banting and Best began another round of experiments, working around the clock for several days. The goal was to remove the pancreases of two more dogs, give “Isletin” to one of them (Dog #92) and compare its effects with Dog #409, which would not receive the extract so as to act as an experimental control.

As expected, Dog #409’s condition steadily declined and it soon died. Meanwhile, Dog #92’s diabetes remained well controlled and it became something of a pet in the laboratory.

17 August 1921 – With Dog #92 frisky and doing well, Banting and Best decided to proceed with some different experiments. One involved removing the whole pancreas from a dog and preparing an extract from it, rather than starting with a degenerated pancreas. When they gave Dog #92 injections of this type of extract, it seemed to have a similar effect, the dog’s chart showing blood sugar reduced to the levels achieved with the extract prepared from a degenerated pancreas.

Banting and Best next tried an alternative to the duct ligation technique. They stimulated the pancreas with a hormone known as secretin, which is produced in the duodenum, i.e., the top section of the small intestine.

20 August 1921 – Despite the complicated process to obtain secretin and inject it slowly into the pancreas over a period of four hours until the production of pancreatic juice stopped, Banting wanted to try the surgical procedure and soon he and Best had an extract to test on Dog #92. When it received the first injection, it was quite sick. By the next morning, when Banting and Best arrived back to the lab, Dog #92 excitedly jumped out of its cage and ran around the lab. This was a profound moment for Banting and indeed he later described it as one of the greatest days of his life.

22 August 1921 – Until the end of the month, Banting and Best conducted some further experiments involving Dog #92, including preparing an extract from the pancreas of a cat using the secretin stimulation procedure. That extract, however, sent the dog into shock, bringing a quick end to further experiments.

Banting and Best's laboratory.
Banting and Best’s laboratory. [University of Toronto Archives. Accession # A1965-0004]

31 August 1921 – Dog #92 finally died after lingering for nine days. “I have seen patients die and I have never shed a tear,” Banting later wrote. “[B]ut when that dog died, I wanted to be alone for the tears would fall despite anything I could do.”

23 September 1921 – Macleod’s letter finally arrived. Their research had progressed so much since Banting wrote to Macleod on August 8th. Macleod was certainly pleased with their progress, but also advised caution in being overconfident with their results. There had to be “no possibility of mistake,” he emphasized. “You know that if you can prove to the satisfaction of everyone that such extracts really have the power to reduce blood sugar in pancreatic diabetes, you will have achieved a very great deal.” But, as he added, “It’s very easy often in science to satisfy one’s own self about some point but it’s very hard to build up a stronghold of proof that others cannot pull down.”

1 October 1921 – Banting secures a special lecturer position in the Pharmacology Department at a salary of $250 per month, a reasonable amount. Macleod had found a room large enough for two dog cages and a laboratory desk, and also arranged for retroactive pay for Banting ($150) and Best ($170). All parties looked forward to continuing experimentation.

October 1921, began with considerable excitement and confidence for Banting, Best and Macleod. The success of the pancreatic extract work so far led to lots of new questions, prompting Banting and Best to explore many different ideas. Macleod, however, tried to rein them in, advising they stay focused on solving the outstanding problems associated with confirming the effectiveness of the pancreatic extract in controlling diabetes. Read more.

4 October 1921 – Banting had made a connection with Dr. John G. Fitzgerald, director of U of T’s Connaught Antitoxin Laboratories. In order to test a theory that the pancreatic duct of a calf could be ligated to isolate the internal secretion, Banting and Best visited the farm to try a pancreatic duct ligation procedure on a calf. However, the operation was unsuccessful as the calf died from the anaesthetic. The experience, although frustrating, fuelled further ideas.

Banting and Best spent considerable time in October doing research in the medical library, reading journal articles about diabetes and the pancreas, and jotting down ideas on index cards. Unlike Best, Banting was not the typical academic medical researcher. He had a practical streak and was driven by a desire to test the extract on human diabetics.

14 November 1921 – Banting’s 30th birthday. Banting and Best gave a talk to the Journal Club of the Department of Physiology and a small audience of students, faculty and staff. The presentation seemed to go well, with an important suggestion made during the discussion by Dr. N.B. Taylor, who thought a longevity experiment with the extract given regularly to a diabetic dog over an extended period of time would be useful.

16 November 1921 – Banting woke from a fitful sleep with an idea, sparked by a memory about the cattle he had helped to slaughter on his father’s farm in Alliston, Ontario. This led he and Best to procure pancreases from foetal calves from a local slaughterhouse and immediately prepared extract. They administered the extract to Dog #27 and its blood sugar fell; 24 hours later, after additional injections, the dog’s urine was sugar-free. This success meant that extract could be prepared more steadily and the scientists could focus on a longevity experiment.

17 November 1921 – Banting and Best removed the pancreas of Dog #33, “Marjorie”.

23 November 1921 – After working to improve the purity of the extract, Banting and Best took a daring step and injected each other with small 1.5 c.c. doses (about 1/3 teaspoon) of extract. Banting and Best’s brief note only said, “No reaction,” which meant no harmful effects. 

7 December 1921 – “Marjorie” (Dog #33) and Dog #23 received extract prepared with a new alcohol method. They believed that alcohol would remove the contaminating impurities in the extract solutions.

8 December 1921 – To further test this, Banting and Best removed the pancreas from Dog #35 and proceeded to prepare an extract from it using the alcohol extraction method.

11 December 1921 – Dog #35 was given an injection of extract prepared from its own whole pancreas. The animal’s blood sugar level dropped from .38 to .18 in four hours. It was clear that alcohol worked to extract the internal secretion from the whole pancreas.

12 December 1921 – The successes led Macleod to formally invite Dr. James Bertram Collip to join the pancreatic extract research team so he could use his specialized biochemistry skills to further the development and purification of the extract. Collip began working to reliably purify the extract from the whole beef extract in a lab at the Toronto General Hospital.

Portrait of Dr. J. B. Collip
Dr. J. B. Collip, c. 1920 [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

At the same time, Banting and Best were also attempting to purify the whole beef extract. Banting and Best prepared a large batch of extract, but when they tested it, they found it lacked potency, based on tests on diabetic dogs. However, they still had some extract they knew to be potent and on December 21st, decided to try it on a fellow physician, Dr. Joseph Gilchrist, who was suffering from diabetes. They administered the extract through a stomach tube rather than by injection. To Banting and Best, it was worth a try in light of Gilchrist’s declining health. However, the extract had no effect on Gilchrist, either positive or negative. 

Christmas 1921 – Banting and Best break for Christmas. Collip was making significant progress. He was able to use a vacuum still to evaporate the alcohol from the extract solution, although only partially, followed by filtration. This extract worked very well at reducing the a diabetic dog’s blood sugar level. Collip also tested the dog’s urine and discovered the extract left it completely sugar and keytone free. This finding marked another significant step.

On Christmas Day, 1921, Dr. George H.A. Clowes travelled to New Haven, Conn., where he planned to see a presentation entitled, “The Beneficial Influences of Certain Pancreatic Extracts on Pancreatic Diabetes.” It was to be given on December 30th by Banting, Best and Macleod at the American Physiological Society’s annual meeting. Dr. Clowes was the research director of Eli Lilly and Company and he had recently heard about some interesting research being done in Toronto in the University of Toronto’s physiology department and headed by Macleod. If this work was being overseen by someone with Macleod’s credentials, Clowes felt, he was confident in its significance and determined to get to New Haven, even if it kept him from his young family over Christmas. 

Dr. George Clowes, dated 1917. National Cancer Institute.

28-30 December 1921 – Thirty-Fourth Annual Meeting of the American Physiological Society, held in New Haven. Banting delivered a paper detailing their accomplishments so far, but became overwhelmed by the questions and response from experts in the audience. Macleod stepped in to rescue him.

This is an abstract of the paper, delivered by F. G. Banting on December 30th, entitled ‘The Beneficial Influences of Certain Pancreatic Extracts on Pancreatic Diabetes.’ J. J. R. Macleod, a member of the American Physiological Society, was chair of the session. [University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin]

Despite the skepticism from the specialists in the audience, the director of research at Eli Lilly & Co of Indianapolis, Dr. George Clowes, was impressed by what he heard. Afterwards, Clowes approached Macleod, offering the collaboration of Eli Lilly to help develop the extract. He discussed the idea with Banting and Macleod, but they politely declined the offer as the work was not sufficiently advanced to be considering commercial preparation. However, Clowes suggestion would be kept in mind.

10 January 1922 – Best prepared some whole beef pancreas extract using the method developed in December, which integrated the use of the vacuum still as developed by Collip. They tested its potency on a dog and then Banting and Best gave each other small injections of the extract to make sure it was safe. 

11 January 1922 – They took a vial to the Toronto General Hospital and it was administered to Leonard Thompson. The results of “Macleod’s serum”, as was noted on Thompson’s chart, were positive, but disappointing to Banting, Best and Macleod. There had been a 25% drop in blood sugar, a reduction in sugar in the urine, but the extract’s modest impact did not outweigh the reaction to it, an abscess at one of the injection sites.

14 January 1922 – The press coverage begins.

A brief article from the Toronto Star. [University of Toronto, The Discovery of Insulin at the University of Toronto]

16 January 1922 – Collip discovered that at a precise limit in the alcohol concentration (a little over 90%), he could actually trap the internal secretion in the purest form yet seen.

Formal photograph of Leonard Thompson, c. 1930. University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin.

23 January 1922 – Treatment of Leonard Thompson resumed with Collip’s extract; he had only received the one insulin treatment of Banting and Best’s extract, but then returned to a diet-based treatment. This time, after Thompson received Collip’s extract, the effect was quite dramatic; sharp drops in blood sugar levels and glygosuria (sugar in the urine) almost disappearing. Leonard quickly became brighter, more active, looked better and was stronger. Moreover, there were no abscesses or other side effects. This time, the pancreatic extract clearly worked.

25 January 1922 – FitzGerald formalized a seminal research and development agreement between Connaught and Banting, Best, Collip and Macleod. Signed by the four men, as well as the chairman of U of T’s Connaught Committee, Albert E. Gooderham, the agreement was based on two key conditions: One, that the collaborators agree not to take out a patent with a commercial pharmaceutical firm during an initial working period with Connaught; and two, that no step that would involve any modification in policy concerning the research work would be allowed unless first discussed among FitzGerald and the four collaborators.

By February 1922, six more diabetic patients at TGH has been successfully treated with the extract, along with Dr. Gilchrist. Throughout the Spring, more patients would be treated with insulin. Read about some of them here.

Teddy Ryder, before and after insulin treatment. [Banting House National Historic Site.

March 22, 1922 – Roy Greenaway wrote a comprehensive front-page article for the Toronto Star, titled “Toronto Doctors on Track of Diabetes Cure,” the publication of which was timed to coincide with the release of the Toronto team’s seminal paper in the March issue of the Canadian Medical Association Journal. Greenaway’s article featured photos of Banting, Best, Macleod and Collip, and quoted extensively from the CMAJ article. Greenaway’s article described the discovery story from Banting’s perspective and highlighted a special moment for Banting and Best before they proceeded with the first human trial. Despite the upbeat coverage, The Star article prompted only a minor flurry of attention locally, and very little attention outside of Toronto.

Roy Greenaway’s article for the Toronto Star, titled “Toronto Doctors on Track of Diabetes Cure” (March 22, 1922).

March 30, 1922 – Dr. Clowes, research director at Eli Lilly, wrote a letter to Macleod, re-affirming Eli Lilly’s interest in assisting in developing methods to produce the extract on a large scale. As he emphasized, “Public interest in this work will naturally be very great and the demand for the product will be such as to lead to attempts on the part of unprincipled individuals to victimize the public unless some steps are taken to arrange for the manufacture of the product by the procedures recommended by Dr. Collip and the control of the products by means of such tests as you and your associates would consider necessary.” 

Spring, 1922 – Chemist, David A. Scott “Scotty,”  received a letter from Connaught’s director, Dr. J.G. FitzGerald, inviting him to join the Connaught Labs team that was focused on restoring pancreatic extract production. To learn more about Dr. Scott, click here.


David A. Scott. Sanofi Pasteur Canada Archives, University of Toronto, Connaught Laboratories & The Making of Insulin, by Dr. Christopher Rutty.

April 12, 1922 – Banting, Best, Collip, Macleod and J.G. FitzGerald, director of Connaught, write a letter to University of Toronto president Robert Falconer, the Toronto group had been advised that it was “unsafe for us not to hold a patent for the method of preparation of [insulin] extracts.” 

University of Toronto President, Robert Falconer. Office of the President (Sir Robert Falconer) correspondence files, the University of Toronto.

There were very few news reports about the pancreatic extract during April, May and into June. The next stories to appear were in papers outside of Toronto. The first was a short report on June 12th in a Battle Creek, Mich., newspaper promoting an upcoming visit by Banting, Best and Clarke Noble to give a presentation at a local physician’s clinic. The second was a prominent front-page article in the June 21st edition of the Winnipeg Tribune. “Canadian Doctor Discovers Cure for Diabetes,” was the banner headline, with the story highlighting Banting’s address to the convention of the Canadian Medical Association.

May 3, 1922 – Macleod called the extract “Insulin” for the first time during an especially successful presentation in Washington, D.C., at a meeting of the Association of American Physicians.

May 10, 1922 – Best was placed in charge of all aspects of the development, purification and production of insulin at Connaught. Best had the full support of FitzGerald and Connaught’s assistant director, Dr. Robert D. Defries. At about this time the group began referring to the extract as “insulin,” which had been suggested by Macleod based on the Latin root word for “island.”

May 25, 1922 – Following the meetings with the Eli Lilly delegation, Macleod, FitzGerald, Banting and Best wrote a follow-up letter to Falconer, formally recommending that the Board of Governors accept, in the name of the University of Toronto, patent rights for the U.S. as had already been done for Canada. The process for applying for a U.S. patent had begun in the names of Best and Collip, following unanimous advice warning “that unless it is done, patents are certain to be secured by commercial firms interested in the production of the extract for sale.” 

May 26, 1922 – Jim Havens, the 22-year-old son of the vice-president of Eastman Kodak, is given the first dose of insulin administered in the United States. An appeal from his physician to Banting prompted Connaught to ship a package of insulin on May 21st. Banting followed up on May 26th, personally delivering more insulin and consulting with Haven’s doctor. To find out more about Jim, click here or here.

May 30, 1922 – The collaboration between the U of T Board of Governors and Eli Lilly was signed and formally established with an “Indenture”. There was to be a complete pooling of knowledge between the Toronto and Indianapolis groups (Eli Lilly) and a several-stage development of insulin that would involve large-scale clinical tests in Toronto and the U.S., with Eli Lilly supplying insulin free of charge in the initial stages, and then selling it at cost. The Lilly group agreed not to divulge production process details to anyone else, although the contract did not place such restrictions on the Toronto team. They intended to publish Connaught’s method in order to ensure others would know how to make insulin when Lilly’s exclusive rights expired, and to protect themselves from potential charges of unethical secrecy. To learn more about the history of Eli Lilly and how they came to play a crucial role in the development and distribution of insulin, click here.

Insulin finishing line at Eli Lily, c. 1923. Image courtesy of Breakthrough: Elizabeth Hughes, the Discovery of Insulin, and the Making of a Medical Miracle by Thea Cooper and Arthur Ainsberg (2010).

June 28, 1922 – Although Eli Lilly began its insulin production development work on May 30th, the University of Toronto’s agreement with the firm only formally came into effect on June 28, 1922. That agreement launched a unique and intensive one-year exclusive partnership focused on developing large-scale insulin production methods. The agreement also allowed Eli Lilly to take out U.S. patents on any improvements it made in the manufacturing process, but it would assign patent rights for the rest of the world to the University of Toronto. 

July 9, 1922 – 57-year-old Charlotte Clarke, suffering from severe diabetes complicated by a badly infected, gangrenous leg, had been referred to Banting and was admitted to Toronto General Hospital, but there was no insulin available for her. However, Banting felt there was a chance to save Clarke, and possibly other diabetics needing critical surgery, if she was given insulin. As the alternative was certain death, Banting felt there was little risk in trying. To learn more about the story of Mrs. Clarke, click here.

Notes on Mrs. Charlotte Clarke. The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin, the University of Toronto.

Eli Lilly’s insulin plant operated continuously during the summer of 1922, with more than 100 employees working in three shifts focused solely on the challenges of large-scale production. Although yields increased, not unlike at Connaught, Lilly encountered problems securing sufficient pancreas tissue to meet production demands. By early August, Connaught and Eli Lilly were both producing fairly reliable supplies of insulin and able to provide it to more diabetic specialists. 

August 15, 1922 – Elizabeth Hughes, an 11 year old diabetic and the daughter of a U.S. secretary of state, arrived in Toronto with her mother and nurse. They met with Banting the next day, who was surprised Elizabeth was still alive. She was extremely emaciated and could barely walk due to her weakness. Banting began the insulin treatment immediately and very quickly the sugar was cleared from her urine. Banting also began increasing her diet. Within two weeks, her condition was stabilized and she was consuming what a normal girl her age would eat. To learn more about Elizabeth, click here or here.

Photograph of Elizabeth Hughes with her mother, Antoinette, in the summer of 1918. University of Toronto, The Discovery and Early Development of Insulin.

October, 1922 – Elsie Needham, an 11-year-old from Galt, Ontario becomes the first reported almost literal “resurrection” of a diabetic after administering insulin — a resurrection from what otherwise would have been a fatal diabetic coma. Elsie had been diagnosed with diabetes for six months when she lapsed into a coma. While her family doctor had little hope for recovery, Elsie’s parents took her to the Hospital for Sick Children, where she was seen by Dr. Gladys Boyd, who was in charge of the hospital’s endocrine service. Dr. Boyd consulted with Banting and together they gave Elsie insulin. Banting stayed with Elsie around the clock to closely monitor her symptoms as the coma persisted. As Banting later wrote, “I lived at the hospital day and night for three days and there every few hours for a week.” After further treatment, during which she experienced fever, delirium and many fluctuations in her condition, Elsie finally regained consciousness. To learn more about Dr. Boyd, click here and to find out more about Elsie, click here or here.

October 1, 1922 – Eli Lilly’s new large-scale insulin production plant was in operation and employing the isoelectric point precipitation and purification process. The new facility quickly produced a surplus supply, which then prompted discussions between Clowes and the U. of T. Insulin Committee about how best to distribute it. To learn more about the second instalment of making insulin, click here.

Fall 1922 –  Professor August Krogh, one of the world’s best-known biomedical scientists and Nobel Prize winner in Physiology and Medicine for his work with capillaries and their role in regulating blood flow during exercise, his wife, Marie Krogh, a scientist in her own right and also a recently diagnosed diabetic, learn about the discovery, development and purification of insulin in Toronto. The Kroghs, living in Denmark, were so intrigued by the dramatic clinical effectiveness of insulin that they began correspondence within their network which eventually led to a collaboration between Novo Nordisk and the University of Toronto’s Insulin Committee. To find out more about the history of Novo Nordisk, and how they came to produce and distribute insulin, click here.

August and Marie Krogh. Novo Nordisk.

The increased U.S. and European press attention prompted a Toronto Star article on October 14th, likely by Greenaway, that focused on the heightened media coverage, much of which had emphasized how insulin was a “certain cure.” But, as the article also observed, “While the University of Toronto remains officially silent, distorted reports in some of the papers of the United States give wrong impressions regarding where the credit is due.”

Toronto Daily Star, October, 1922.

October 20, 1922 – U of T’s Insulin Committee assumed a more direct role in controlling the insulin story in the press, beginning with an official statement detailing the university’s formal application for patents. 

Toronto Daily Star, October 20, 1922.

December 7, 1922 – Press attention shifted away from the patent issue towards dramatic accounts of how insulin had revived patients in diabetic comas. Two almost simultaneous cases are published by the Toronto Star in which insulin injections resurrected diabetics on “death’s door” in Edmonton and New York City. In Edmonton, Collip’s insulin revived an eight-year-old girl, while a 16-year-old New York City boy emerged from a coma following treatment. To learn more about these early child patients who were ‘resurrected’ click here or here.

December 18, 1922 – Banting finally relented and allowed his name to be included in a generally written insulin patent application that now placed more emphasis on what the Toronto pancreatic extract did, physiologically and clinically, as a diabetes treatment, than on detailing a definitive method of its production. To learn more about why Banting did not initially want his name included on the patent, click here.

January, 1923 – Banting, W.R. Campbell and A.A. Fletcher reported in an article for the British Medical Journal that by the end of December 1922, 50 diabetic cases had been successfully treated with insulin at TGH, with ten patients revived from complete comas. 

July, 1924 – Professor August Krogh and Hans Christian Hagedorn establish Nordisk Insulin Laboratory as an independent institution by royal charter, with Hagedorn as director. Insulin production flourished in Denmark, with “Nordisk Insulin” produced at a lower cost than anywhere else in the world except the insulin produced by Connaught Labs in Toronto. The profits from Nordisk’s sales were directed to the Nordisk Insulin Foundation, set up in December 1926, to support scientific and clinical studies in physiology, endocrinology and metabolism (August Krogh was its first chair). Nordisk’s head start with insulin production and distribution enabled it to become well established across Scandinavia before Novo began operations. To learn more about the history of Novo Nordisk and their role in the development of insulin, click here.

Hagedorn

Hans Christian Hagedorn. Novo Nordisk.

Krogh

Schack August Steenberg Krogh. The Nobel Prize.

Chuka

By  Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie ,  Fiction , THE NEW YORKER  February 10, 2025 Photograph by Nakeya Brown for The New Yorker I have always long...